The present invention relates to cementing operations and, more particularly, in certain embodiments, to settable compositions having reduced carbon footprints and associated methods of use.
Settable compositions may be used in a variety of subterranean applications. As used herein, the term “settable composition” refers to any composition that over time will set to form a hardened mass. One example of a settable composition comprises hydraulic cement and water. Subterranean applications that may involve settable compositions include, but are not limited to, primary cementing, remedial cementing, and drilling operations. Settable compositions also may be used in surface applications, for example, construction cementing.
Settable compositions may be used in primary cementing operations whereby pipe strings, such as casing and liners, are cemented in well bores. In performing primary cementing, a settable composition may be pumped into an annular space between the walls of a well bore and the pipe string disposed therein. The settable composition sets in the annular space, thereby forming an annular sheath of hardened cement (e.g., a cement sheath) that supports and positions the pipe string in the well bore and bonds the exterior surface of the pipe string to the walls of the well bore.
Settable compositions also may be used in remedial cementing operations, such as sealing voids in a pipe string or a cement sheath. As used herein the term “void” refers to any type of space, including fractures, holes, cracks, channels, spaces, and the like. Such voids may include: holes or cracks in the pipe strings; holes, cracks, spaces, or channels in the cement sheath; and very small spaces (commonly referred to as “microannuli”) between the cement sheath and the exterior surface of the well casing or formation. Sealing such voids may prevent the undesired flow of fluids (e.g., oil, gas, water, etc.) and/or fine solids into, or from, the well bore.
The sealing of such voids, whether or not made deliberately, has been attempted by introducing a substance into the void and permitting it to remain therein to seal the void. If the substance does not fit into the void, a bridge, patch, or sheath may be formed over the void to possibly produce a termination of the undesired fluid flow. Substances used heretofore in methods to terminate the undesired passage of fluids through such voids include settable compositions comprising water and hydraulic cement, wherein the methods employ hydraulic pressure to force the settable composition into the void. Once placed into the void, the settable composition may be permitted to harden.
Remedial cementing operations also may be used to seal portions of subterranean formations or portions of gravel packs. The portions of the subterranean formation may include permeable portions of a formation and fractures (natural or otherwise) in the formation and other portions of the formation that may allow the undesired flow of fluid into, or from, the well bore. The portions of the gravel pack include those portions of the gravel pack, wherein it is desired to prevent the undesired flow of fluids into, or from, the well bore. A “gravel pack” is a term commonly used to refer to a volume of particulate materials (such as sand) placed into a well bore to at least partially reduce the migration of unconsolidated formation particulates into the well bore. While screenless gravel packing operations are becoming more common, gravel packing operations commonly involve placing a gravel pack screen in the well bore neighboring a desired portion of the subterranean formation, and packing the surrounding annulus between the screen and the well bore with particulate materials that are sized to prevent and inhibit the passage of formation solids through the gravel pack with produced fluids. Among other things, this method may allow sealing of the portion of the gravel pack to prevent the undesired flow of fluids without requiring the gravel pack's removal.
Settable compositions also may be used during the drilling of the well bore in a subterranean formation. For example, in the drilling of a well bore, it may be desirable, in some instances, to change the direction of the well bore. In some instances, settable compositions may be used to facilitate this change of direction, for example, by drilling a pilot hole in a hardened mass of cement, commonly referred to as a “kickoff plug,” placed in the well bore.
Certain formations may cause the drill bit to drill in a particular direction. For example, in a vertical well, this may result in an undesirable well bore deviation from vertical. In a directional well (which is drilled at an angle from vertical), after drilling an initial portion of the well bore vertically, the direction induced by the formation may make following the desired path difficult. In those and other instances, special directional drilling tools may be used, such as a whipstock, a bent sub-downhole motorized drill combination, and the like. Generally, the directional drilling tool or tools used may be orientated so that a pilot hole is produced at the desired angle to the previous well bore in a desired direction. When the pilot hole has been drilled for a short distance, the special tool or tools are removed, if required, and drilling along the new path may be resumed. To help ensure that the subsequent drilling follows the pilot hole, it may be necessary to drill the pilot hole in a kickoff plug, placed in the well bore. In those instances, prior to drilling the pilot hole, a settable composition may be introduced into the well bore and allowed to set to form a kickoff plug therein. The pilot hole then may be drilled in the kickoff plug, and the high strength of the kickoff plug helps ensure that the subsequent drilling proceeds in the direction of the pilot hole.
Settable compositions used heretofore commonly comprise Portland cement. Portland cement generally is a major component of the cost for the settable compositions. To reduce the cost of such settable compositions, other components may be included in the settable composition in addition to, or in place of, the Portland cement. Such components may include fly ash, slag cement, shale, metakaolin, micro-fine cement, and the like. “Fly ash,” as that term is used herein, refers to the residue from the combustion of powdered or ground coal, wherein the fly ash carried by the flue gases may be recovered, for example, by electrostatic precipitation. “Slag,” as that term is used herein, refers to a granulated, blast furnace by-product formed in the production of cast iron and generally comprises the oxidized impurities found in iron ore. Slag cement generally comprises slag and a base, for example, such as sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, or lime, to produce a settable composition that, when combined with water, may set to form a hardened mass.
During the manufacture of cement, a waste material commonly referred to as “CKD” is generated. “CKD,” as that term is used herein, refers to a partially calcined kiln feed which is removed from the gas stream and collected in a dust collector during the manufacture of cement. Usually, large quantities of CKD are collected in the production of cement that are commonly disposed of as waste. Disposal of the waste CKD can add undesirable costs to the manufacture of the cement, as well as the environmental concerns associated with its disposal. The chemical analysis of CKD from various cement manufactures varies depending on a number of factors, including the particular kiln feed, the efficiencies of the cement production operation, and the associated dust collection systems. CKD generally may comprise a variety of oxides, such as SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, SO3, Na2O, and K2O.
The manufacture of cement, such as Portland cement, is a very energy-intensive industry. Globally, cement manufactures account for as much as 2% of total energy consumption and as much as 5% of total industrial energy consumption. Much of this energy is producing by burning fossil fuels such as coal, contributing to the production of “greenhouse gases.” One of the most discussed of these greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2). The effect certain activities have on the climate in terms of the total amount of greenhouse gases produced is often described as a “carbon footprint.” A relatively large producer of CO2, with a relatively large carbon footprint, is the cement industry. It is estimated that the cement industry currently accounts for about 5% of the total global production of greenhouse gases.